Qualitative Research And Observation

In Chapter 4 we discussed communication as a means of obtaining information from respondents. Respondents provide information by answering questions (via an interview) or by having their behavior observed. It will be recalled that at the extremes, an interview will be either structured or unstructured in organization and that it may be either direct or indirect in questioning. In this chapter we consider the use of indirect interviews of all kinds, special types of unstructured-direct interviews, and observation as means of obtaining information from respondents. We conclude the chapter with an assessment of direct and indirect research techniques.

Focus Group Interviews

Perhaps the best-known and most widely used type of indirect interview is that conducted with a focus group. As we mentioned in Chapter 2, a focus group interview involves group of people jointly participating in an interview that does not use a structured question and  answer method to obtain information from these people. A trained moderator conducts the interview with a group of, ideally, 8 to 12 (but increasingly only 6 to 8) willingly recruited participants. The composition of the group varies according to the needs of the client, especially the problem under study. Although the technique is widely used in exploratory research, it also is useful in nonexploratory research. Such applications include gaining greater understanding of consumer wants, thoughts and needs; idea generation (e.g., problem, unmet needs, ideas for new products), concept development and screening, tests for comprehension of promotion and communication materials, and establishment of “opinion leader” panels.

It seems to be a well accepted fact that focus groups work, especially when used with other techniques. Practitioner researchers accept the idea that qualitative techniques like focus groups, explore, define and describe. In contrast, quantitative methodologies measure, estimate and quantify. These techniques are complements, not substitutes. Typically, the qualitative research precedes quantitative research, but, when a company already has a substantial amount of existing research data to prepare a quantitative survey questionnaire, the focus group can add meaning to the survey findings (Garee & Schori, 1996).

Example : 

The Federal Duck Stamp Office of the Department of Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Rydholm, 2000) focus group study. Migratory Bird Hunting and Conservation Stamps, known commonly as duck stamps, are required for hunters of ducks. They are also popular among stamp collectors. Funds from the sale of these stamps are used to help fund the preservation of wetlands in the United States. Because the number of hunters has been declining, there was a need to find a way to reach a new audience and to broaden the market for the stamps. Focus groups were used during the development of a marketing campaign in which a certificate bearing a duck stamp and stating that the recipient has helped preserve one-tenth of an acre of wetlands could be purchased for $30. The objective was to appeal to bird watchers, hikers, and other naturalists. Focus groups showed that the stamp itself was not enough to make the sale. The certificate idea came directly from the focus group research. Focus groups were conducted throughout the country, two groups per city—one with environmentally active people, the other with people who were not predisposed against environmental issues. Once a range of appeals was identified in the groups, the questioning centered on isolating the elements that made people change their minds.

Example : 

is the Jacksonville, Florida, symphony orchestra’s use of focus groups to identify lifestyle marketing issues to explore entertainment alternatives, and to provide some ideas about what future audiences would want and expect from the orchestra (LaFlamme, 1988).

Raymond Johnson (1988) has identified four distinctive categories of focus groups on the basis of examining tapes from the project files of several research companies. Johnson, a\ practitioner, has defined each type of focus group by the adaptation of an interviewing technique to answer one of four basic research questions. The focus group types are as follows :

-	Exploratory studies of consumer lifestyles and probing to “just find out what’s on the consumers’ minds these days.”
-	Concept testing studies of how a group, without prompting, interprets a deliberately sketchy idea for a new product or service. Potential users are able to react to a concept still in its formative or experimental stage.
-	Habits and usage studies deal with the real world of actual consumers. The topic is framed by the moderator’s instructions to describe, usually by situation-specific narratives, the details of personal experiences in using a particular product or service.
-	Media testing in which participants are asked to interpret the message covered in media usually seen in rough form is the fourth type. All types of media may be covered. Group members talk about their understanding of the message and evaluate the extent to which they find it credible, interesting, and emotionally involving.

The use of focus groups is not limited to consumer products and services. This technique can provide a relatively easy and cost-effective way to interact with business consumers in industries ranging from pharmaceuticals to computer software. The ways in which focus groups are structured and conducted are similar for consumer-based and business-to-business groups, except as identified by Fedder (1990).

A natural question, of course, is, “Why do focus groups work?” One view is that clients are provided with a gut-level grasp of their customers. This means that a sense of what is unique about customers is gained —their self-perceptions, desires, and needs that affect everything they do. For more detailed discussions, see Bloor, Frankland, Thomas, and Robson (2001), and Fern (1981). Qualitative research offers not just an intellectual comprehension of consumers but a vivid, visceral recognition that affects, on a very deep level, how clients see, feel about, and deal with their customers from then on. Some guidelines and questions to assist clients in observing focus groups more effectively are discussed briefly in Exhibit 6.1.

One critical aspect of a focus group’s success is the moderator (Exhibit 6.2). The moderator’s job is to focus the group’s discussion on the topics of interest. To accomplish this, the moderator needs to explain to the group the operational procedures to be used, the group’s purpose, and why the group is being recorded. Rapport with the group must be established and each topic introduced. The respondents need to feel relaxed early on, and often moderator humor helps this to happen. Once the respondents are comfortable, the moderator needs to keep the discussion on track while not influencing how the discussion proceeds. A moderator has done a good job if, after the topic has been introduced, the discussion proceeds with little direction from the moderator. There must be synergy among the group members. Thus, a critical measure of success is that the group members have talked with each other, not with the moderator.

Exhibit 6.1 

Observation of Focus Groups by Clients

As an observer, a client should be cognizant of certain things as he or she observes the dynamics of a focus group in the “back room” from behind a one-way mirror. According to Judith Langer (2001), a client should consider the following :

1.	Determine your overall impression of the people in the group by looking at their sophistication level, appearance, and the way they express themselves.
2.	Do the respondents’ reactions support your assumptions? A way to assess whether the people are typical or less than fully honest is to have outside data.
3.	Are there segments that seem to exist in the focus groups, perhaps based on psychographics?
4.	Are there patterns that emerge after several groups? Watch out for making conclusions after just one session. Look for variance! Do not count numbers.
5.	A single comment by a respondent may be quite insightful.
6.	Look at how people say things, not just what they say. Nonverbal communication can be valuable in interpreting the verbal responses.
7.	If a new product or product concept is involved, are the respondents enthusiastic or are they neutral about it?
8.	Although certain statements by respondents may appear to be complimentary, they may not really be. This is known as a false positive and is something to be avoided.
9.	Be aware of any contradictions that arise between what respondents say and what they report as behavior.
10.	Are respondents open to changing their minds, given other information?
11.	After the session, talk with the moderator and ask him or her to put the responses in perspective. The last suggestion may be difficult for a client to accept. Never take what is said as being personal. Forget about ego and company politics.
12.	Joining the participants of the focus group (after the focus group script is ended). Seeing and hearing consumers, up close, has an impact that no set of data and no written report alone can have. It makes the abstract real because it is human and individual.

When conducting focus groups with professionals, the practical aspects of focus group use are somewhat unique. Special attention must be given to recruitment, type of compensation  or gratuity, convenience of the facility to be used, and the moderator. When professionals are involved, the moderator’s interaction must be such that he or she is presented as an authority on research in the field of the professional. At least a working knowledge of current technical terminology is necessary.

Exhibit 6.2 

The Make or Buy Decision for Focus Groups

Some marketing managers believe that almost one-half the cost of the research can be saved by having internal marketing research people conduct the groups. As the costs of doing focus groups increase, some companies consider hiring an “outsider” to conduct groups. In general, a managers’ argument for having the groups done internally is based on the following :

1.	Money can be saved as the cost of the moderator is eliminated
2.	Company personnel are more familiar with the product and will be able to ask the right questions, recognize the nuances, and know when the group is not telling the truth.
3.	The groups can be scheduled as the managers’ schedules permit.
4.	There have been bad experiences with the outside moderators used in the past

To an extent, these points are valid and could represent an advantage for doing it internally. However, Thomas Greenbaum (1991) believes that when the total situation is considered, it is preferable to hire the right outsider to conduct the focus groups. He lists the following reasons :

1.	An outside moderator can be more objective than an insider, and is less likely to lead the group in a specific direction.
2.	Focus group moderation is a learned skill that is developed over time.
3.	An outside moderator can be helpful in designing the groups and in developing an effective moderator guide.
4.	The lack of detailed product knowledge often is an advantage, not a disadvantage. Since moderators pretend not to know much about the category being discussed, it is possible to ask the seemingly dumb question or seek “help” from the participants that will generate information to achieve the goals of the research.
5.	There is less chance that the participants will refrain from showing concern or reacting negatively to ideas when an outside moderator is used.
6.	An outsider will be more objective in interpreting results than will an insider
7.	Clients work better by doing what they need to do from the back room, behind the mirror, rather than by conducting the groups themselves

It seems clear that much of the argument for using outsiders is based on their greater experience and objectivity. Of course, there may be insiders who possess the experience and can, indeed, be objective in doing focus group research. Greenbaum (1999) presents a practical perspective and a more detailed guide of moderators.

In addition to in person group interaction, a focus group can be conducted over the telephone by use of a conference call. Respondents are recruited from across the country and are told to call a toll-free number at a certain time to participate. Groups have included doctors, car dealers, accountants, travel agents, and others for projects relating to product development, promotion feedback, reasons why a product was not selling, and similar issues. Simon (1988) listed some of the advantages of this  approach :

1.	Groups can have tremendous geographic diversity
2.	Travel costs can be virtually eliminated.
3.	Recruitment is easier because you do not ask a respondent to spend an evening traveling to, sitting in, and returning from a facility.
4.	Mixed groups are no problem
5.	Bad weather generally has no effect on the carrying out of a group session.
6.	The information from a telephone group is clean, concise, and to the point.
7.	Overbearing respondents can be better handled without disrupting the group.
8.	Concept testing is easy.
9.	Researchers and clients do not have to go all over the country to put together a sufficient number of representative groups from among the smaller sub specialties.

One disadvantage of the telephone focus group is that the researcher loses the ability to evaluate verbal response within the context of nonverbal communication. More recent technology has allowed clients to view focus groups live without traveling to the geographic areas where they are held. One company has developed video software capable of broadcasting live focus group interviews from a nationwide network of independently-owned focus group facilities to a conference room in a company’s own office. Clients view all of the action on a large monitor and control two cameras that allow a full group view, close-up, zoom, or pan. They can maintain audio contact with the moderator, video the complete sessions, and hold “open mike” post-group debriefings. Major advantages of this system include saving time and money. Such video system focus-group facilities have expanded to include global options.

Technology has had a dramatic impact on focus group structure and method. Video conferencing is being used to reduce costs. Related to this is conducting focus groups at conventions, which has application for business-to-business situations and to situations where the target market consists of professionals. With the right convention, a large concentration of the target market can be accessed (Greenbaum, 1993). Focus groups conducted via the Internet can replace face to face research. This so-called virtual research has the appeal of groups being run more quickly and at lower cost. But, there is a cost! This cost is that the researcher loses the ability to relate nonverbal communication by respondents to the verbal aspects. That is, body language, voice inflection, facial expression, and interaction between people cannot be observed (Miller, 1994).

Indirect Interviews And Qualitative Research

A number of techniques have been devised to obtain information by indirect means. Most of these techniques employ the principle of projection. That is, the subject is given a nonpersonal, ambiguous situation and asked to describe it, expand on it, or build a structure around it. The person giving the description will tend to interpret the situation in terms of his or her own needs, motives, and values. The description therefore involves a projection of the respondent’s own personal characteristics to the situation described.

Projection techniques include word association tasks, sentence completion tests, and interpretation of pictures and pictorial representations that have been developed as a means of inducing people to project their feelings (see Table 6.1). These techniques have been most widely used for studies of consumer products that are similar in quality, performance, and price notably for such products as automobiles, soaps and detergents, gasoline, cigarettes, food products, beverages, and drug sundries. Projection techniques can stimulate a relaxed free flow of associations that tap and identify deep, unacknowledged feelings to a degree not usually possible by other research techniques. Because projective techniques are designed to bypass people’s built-in censoring mechanisms, they are useful in eliciting information about sensitive or threatening topics and products.

Table 6.1 

Classification of Projective Techniques

Technique	Response Requested of Subjects
Construction	To create a story based on a stimuli presented
Ordering Item preference test	To order stimulus items by preference
Expressive techniques	Play a role; draw a picture of a person doing something ; describe a character in a simulated situation
Association Word association test	To reply to a stimulus with the first word, image, or percept that comes to mind
Completion Sentence completion test	To complete incomplete expressions, images, or situations

Most indirect interviews are at least partially structured in that they are conducted using a predefined set of words, statements, cartoons, pictures, or other representation to which the subject is asked to respond. However, the interviewer is usually allowed considerable freedom in questioning the respondent in order to ensure a full response. Indirect interviews, therefore, are commonly neither fully structured nor fully unstructured; ordinarily they utilize both types of question. Within the marketing research community these techniques constitute qualitative research techniques.

The Third Person Technique

The simplest way of obtaining information through indirect questioning of a respondent is to ask for the view of a neighbor, an (unnamed) associate, or some other person whose views on the subject at hand might reasonably be known. This permits the respondent to project his or her own views with no feeling of social pressure to give an “acceptable” answer.

An early study using a variation of this technique that has come to be regarded as a classic is the study by Mason Haire (1950) on instant coffee. This study was conducted when instant coffee was first being introduced. The purpose of the study was to determine the motivations of consumers toward instant coffee in general and Nescafe, a brand of instant coffee, in particular. Interviews of consumers had been conducted using a questionnaire employing direct questions. Among the questions asked were “Do you use instant coffee?” and (if “No”) “What do you dislike about it?” The majority of the unfavorable responses were of the general content “I don’t like the flavor.” This answer was suspected to be a stereotype rather than revealing the true reasons. An indirect approach was therefore chosen.

Two shopping lists were prepared that were identical in every respect except that one contained “Nescafe instant coffee” and the other “Maxwell House coffee (drip grind).” These shopping lists were shown alternately to a sample of 100 respondents, each being unaware of the other list. Each subject was given the following instructions :

Read the shopping list below. Try to project yourself into the situation as far as possible until you can more or less characterize the woman who bought the groceries. Then write a brief description of her personality and character. Wherever possible indicate what factors influenced your judgment.

The results were quite revealing. The descriptions given were summarized as follows (Haire, 1950, p. 652) :

-	Forty eight percent of the people described the woman who bought Nescafe as lazy ; four percent described the woman who bought Maxwell House as lazy.
-	Forty-eight percent of the people described the woman who bought Nescafe as failing to plan household purchases and schedules well; 12 percent described the woman who bought Maxwell House this way.
-	Four percent described the Nescafe woman as thrifty; 16 percent described the Maxwell House woman as thrifty; 12 percent described the Nescafe woman as spendthrift; 0 percent described the Maxwell House woman this way.
-	Sixteen percent described the Nescafe woman as not a good wife; 0 percent described the Maxwell House woman this way; 4 percent described the Nescafe woman as a good wife; 16 percent described the Maxwell House woman as a good wife.

The implications of these findings seem clear. The woman using the instant coffee was characterized as being lazier, less well organized, more of a spendthrift, and not as good a wife as the one using the conventional coffee. These imputed characteristics must have been the result of the respondents’ projecting their own feelings toward instant coffee in their descriptions of the woman using it.

This study has been replicated a number of times. The general acceptance of instant coffee and the change in dietary habits since the original study have resulted in different findings in the more recent studies. Nevertheless, the original study remains as a classic application of the third-person technique of research.

Word Association Tests

Word association tests consist of presenting a series of stimulus words to a respondent who is asked to answer quickly with the first word that comes to mind after hearing each. The respondent, by answering quickly, presumably gives the word that he or she associates most closely with the stimulus word.

Word association tests are simple and easy to use, and offer powerful insights into the perceptions and associations related to the concepts being tested.

Sentence Completion Tests

Sentence completion tests are similar to word association tests, both in concept and in use. A sentence stem (the beginning phrase of a sentence) is read to the respondent, who is asked to complete the sentence quickly and with the first thought that occurs to him or her. Recognizing that people may react in more than one way to a sentence stem, participants are asked to fill in the sentence several times rather than once. This increases the likelihood of uncovering all major feelings on a topic.

Sentence completion tests provide a top-of-mind association between the respondent and the topic/product/subject being investigated. This data is easy to collect, but is difficult to analyze so that an accurate perspective is obtained of the differences between groups and the meanings of the comments.

Example : 

A sentence completion was used in a study of automobile buying to probe the motivations of automobile buyers and thereby provide a sounder basis for advertising. Analysis of selected responses of men and women to two of the sentence stems illustrates how inferences of motivational influences can be drawn through the use of this technique (Newman, 1957, pp. 227–228).

Sentence stem: When you first get a car . . .

Women’s responses:

. . . you can’t wait till you drive.

. . . you would go for a ride.

. . . you would take rides in it, naturally.

. . . you would put gas in it and go places.

Sentence stem: A car of your own . . .

Women’s responses:

. . . is a pleasant convenience.

. . . is fine to have.

. . . is nice to have

Men’s responses:

. . . you take good care of it.

. . . I want to make darn sure it has a good coat of wax.

. . . check the engine.

. . . how soon can I start polishing it.

Men’s responses:

. . . I would take care of it.

. . . is a good thing.

. . . absolutely a necessity

Women’s responses indicated that for them a car is something to use and that pride of ownership stresses being seen in the car. For men a car was something for which they should be protective and responsible. Their emphasis was on examining the car and doing things to it. Men appeared to feel closer to their car and regarded it as more of a necessity than did women.

The Depth Interview

The unstructured informal interview in marketing research is referred to as a depth interview. It is used to explore the underlying predispositions, needs, desires, feelings, and emotions of the consumer toward products and services. Depth interviews, if conducted in sufficient detail, produce accurate and understandable qualitative information about the research problem (exploratory studies), or for concept or habits and uses studies.

Insofar as obtaining information on motivations is concerned, the concept of “depth” refers to the level at which underlying motivations are uncovered. When conducting depth interviews, the key is to ask questions that probe for more depth in underlying relationships and motivations. Mariampolski (1988) created a useful list of different probes that can be used :

1. The silent probe (use eye contact and body language)

2. Request elaboration

3. Request definition

4. Request word association

5. Request context or situation of use, occurrence or activity

6. Shift the context or situation

7. Request a clarification

8. Request a comparison

9. Request classification or typology

10. Compare and contrast to a previous statement

11. Challenge veracity

12. Challenge completeness

13. Confrontational probe

14. Echo probe

15. Interpretive probe

16. Summary probe

17. Purposive misunderstanding

18. Playing naive

19. Projective probe

These alternative techniques of probing have varied effectiveness, but are all useful tools in interviewing. By following leads and cues provided by respondents, phrasing questions to continue the flow and pattern of the conversation and to maintain the rapport established, the competent interviewer can explore and probe the underlying motivations of the respondent.

Dissatisfaction with the group influence and the high cost of focus groups, together with certain evolving factors in the marketing environment, have led to recent increased use of the individual depth interview. The depth interview is ideal for obtaining from consumers anecdotes of times they used a product or service, and such “stories” provide the marketer with a good view of what products mean to consumers. When used this way, the result of the interview is usually presented verbatim. Telephone interviewing has proved to be effective in obtaining such consumer stories. The depth interview offers insights with depth, whereas focus groups offer information with breadth. Thus, each has its place in the total set of methodologies from which marketing researchers can draw.

There are three distinct research situations where depth interviews can be used (Kates, 2000) :

1.	Depth interviews are useful in exploratory research to obtain background information to support the development of a quantitative survey instrument.
2.	Depth interviews may be the sole research method used such as hard to reach groups, or when focus groups are not feasible. Obviously, results normally cannot be statistically significant, but results can be projected if the size of the sample interviewed is large enough (at least 60 percent of the population, indicating, of course, a relatively small population).
3.	Depth interviews can obtain information on a subject without being biased by the group dynamic that often occurs in a focus group. For instance, in the case of a rollout of a new product the marketer may not want respondents to be influenced by the views of others.

Another approach, labeled ZMET, for Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation Technique was developed by Zaltman (2003). This approach uses a rigorous in-depth interviewing procedure to understand the deep meaning customers attach to product decisions. Founded in the assumption that 95% of human thoughts and feelings are unconscious, we process current information through the context of past experiences to provide their meaning and interpretation to us.

ZMET identifies the metaphors that shape decision making and behavior. For example, we can identify the surface metaphors (statements like “He invests his time wisely”), thematic metaphors (themes: “time is like money”) and deep metaphors (“time is a resource”) that help us understand and evaluate the thinking and emotions that precede our behavior (what we hear, feel, think, say and do).

The ZMET interview focuses on photos or drawings that subjects are asked to bring with them, representing their feelings about the topic of discussion for example, donating to a charity or university, or purchasing a specific product or brand). These representations are discussed in depth to identify the deep metaphors associated with the top

Shows examples of these deep metaphors that each of us in expressing thoughts and emotions. Interviewees are asked to explain their true feelings about objects of concern with images, and not just words.

Deep Metaphors and Expressions in Conversation

Deep Metaphors	Expressions In The View
Physicality	References to bodily functions and senses such as taste it; feel it; pick up, ingest, see my point; hurts me
Orientation	References to spatial orientation--up/down, higher/lower; bigger/smaller; upright/lie down ; front/back.
Pleasure/pain	References to the positive (or negative); to things that give one pleasure; feeling good or bad; References to enjoyment, fun, happiness, euphoria, well-being ... or to he opposite (fear, disgust, pain); Feeling good versus hurting, physically or emotionally.
Entity	Considering an intangible idea, concept as a thing, a physical object, an entity; e.g.; "I can't get my breath"
Balance	References to equilibrium, stability, equalize or compensate; Including both sides; Images of scales, teeter-totter, balance beam; References to reciprocity--give and take; References to 'stable" emotional states such as calm, relaxed, serene; Feeling 'right" with the world.
Connection or Linkage	References to connecting to things or people; Making an association; References to linking or attaching ; To be a part of; to not be isolated from; Liking or loving someone or something ; References to getting in touch with yourself; find your true self
Resource	References to having/getting the requisite knowledge, energy, tools, or materials to accomplish some task; Having or getting help and assistance from others (we are a team, I need support);
Container	References to being in (or out) of a place (house, room); References to keeping or storing; References to "in" and "out;" Keeping things out as well as in; Being wrapped up ... or out in open.
Motion or Movement	References to moving (flowing, traveling, running or walking); References to movement actions (hurrying, getting going); Keep moving; Keep it going.
Journey	References to taking a trip; Following a path, choosing a direction; Getting there; Journey of life.
Transformation	References to changing from one state to another-physical or emotional; Becoming something or someone else; References to evolving, maturing, growing;
Time	References to the passage of time; Reference to past events or historical perspectives; Images of clocks and watches; References to old memories, remembering past events.
Nature	References to nature, outdoors, natural world; Specific images of nature rain forest, desert, woods ; References to pure, unadulterated, pristine, uncontaminated and to wild, untamed, chaotic, stormy. References to breeding, evolving, growing.
Force	References to power, a powerful presence, or a source of energy; References to the consequences of force (getting hit; slammed, impact)
Fight vs. Flight	References to war; fights, battle, attacking, aggression; Choose your battles; References to weapons; Avoid a fight; Don't get involved; Running away or hiding from something; Ignoring an issue.
Knowing and knowledge	References to knowing, understanding, learning. Gaining knowledge and understanding through study; Knowledge and wisdom; Comprehension; insight. In contrast, the unknown, ignorance, stupidity; Inability to comprehend and understand something
Contrast or Paradox	References to looking at both/two sides; Comparing opposites; Juxtaposition of opposites; References to paradox--being one thing and its opposite at same time;
Personal expression	Reference to things that express one's personal goals, values, points of view ... to one's self or to others.
The Ideal	Reference to the ideal object, situation, feeling. Statements about one's ideal self. References to perfection, the perfect one.
System	References to machine metaphors (wheels and gears, well-oiled machine); or a constructed process or approach for solving a problem; A set of rules or procedures to accomplish a task ; Following a ritual
Sacred (Profane)	References to divine or spiritual qualities; Symbolic cleanliness, purity, vs. dirty, impure, devilish, malevolent
The Mother; Care giving	References to love, fondness; warm relationships with family and friends; Caring for or nurturing others, animals, plants; Being a caring resource for others ; taking responsibility for and supporting and helping others
Masculine/ Feminine	References to gender--male or female; Having masculine or feminine traits; Attributions of gender to nonliving things, ideas, concepts.
Birth/Death	References to beginning or end of life, of an idea, or concept; Being rejuvenated or brought back to life (reborn); References to decline, dying, or death.
Quantify/Measure	References to beginning or end of life, of an idea, or concept; Being rejuvenated or brought back to life (reborn); References to decline, dying, or death.
Holism/Completeness	References to being whole, entire, complete, not lacking anything, not having weaknesses that compromise any other part of the whole.

Source: Jerry C. Olson, Olson Zaltman Associates (www.olsonzaltman.com).

As a final note for conducting in-depth interviews, it is important to use empathy in understanding and appreciating someone else’s beliefs, attitudes, feelings, and behaviors, as well as the social factors that influence their behavior. Many standard qualitative techniques neglect empathy. Specific guidelines for conducting empathic interviews include the following (Lawless, 1999) :

1.	The researcher needs to imagine himself/herself in the respondent’s situation and must listen to the respondent fully.
2.	Do not be hindered by the discussion guide; react and improvise as needed.
3.	Ask open-ended, non-leading questions that start with how, what, and why.
4.	Avoid self-referencing by setting aside thoughts, preconceptions, and interpretations.
5.	Challenge generalizations by asking for specific examples.
6.	Probe non judgmentally to understand the person’s beliefs, feelings, and behaviors
7.	Let the respondent reveal himself/herself through personal studies.

The next section demonstrates a depth interviewing technique called means-end analysis, which focuses on discovering the product attributes/features, benefits and values that motivate the use or purchase of a product.

Means End Analysis

Means end analysis, also known as Laddering and Means-End Chain, is an in depth, oneon one interviewing technique that is directed at identifying the linkages people make between product attributes (the means), the benefits derived from those attributes (the consequences), and the values or end state (the ends) that underlie the desire to achieve the consequences. The premise of means-end analysis is that consumers make attributed based decisions, selecting those attributes that lead to their desired benefits or consequences and that are consistent with their achieving, fulfilling, or identifying with specific personal values.

Laddering interviews, as an in-depth interviewing technique, employ structured dialogues that identify the most important attributes, the benefits (consequences) derived from those attributes and the values linked to the consequences in a given usage situation (Figure 6.2). The interviewer moves up and down the means-end chain, identifying the hierarchical structure of the product attribute / product benefit / personal benefit / personal value components and linkages. The interviewer usually asks questions like “Why is that important to you?” or “What do you gain from having that characteristic?” Interviews typically last between 45 and 90 minutes and are recorded for analysis and preparation of the resulting laddering maps of the components and linkages.

Laddering focuses on both the positive and negative linkages between attributes and consequences that are important in choosing a brand. This laddering of the reasons that underlie a decision provides a much deeper understanding of the consumer than does a traditional “ratings survey” of product attributes, but does not penetrate as deeply as does the ZMET analysis.

The first task of a laddering exercise is to elicit the attributes that are important in distinguishing between brands. Exhibit 6.3 identifies a series of approaches that might be used to elicit the attributes that are most important in distinguishing between brands. In practice, several different methods may be used to capture a full range of meaningful distinctions between a brand and its competitors. For example, a laddering interview might start with top of mind imaging to understand general product-category beliefs, then increase in brand-related specificity by asking about the usage context (contextual environment), and finally about alternative usage occasions. Other tools, such as a worksheet (Exhibit 6.4) might also be used.

Exibit 6.3 Methods for Eliciting Brand Attitudes

A variety of methods can be used in marketing research to elicit brand attitudes :

-	Top of imaging. The respondent gives positive and negative associations for the brand or product category, along with reasons why the characteristic is viewed that way. This line of questions uncovers the attributes and consequences that distinguish the characteristic.
-	Grouping similar brands. Grouping identifies similar and dissimilar brand groupings within a product category and the reasons for this perceived similarity or dissimilarity. The primary reasons, most important attributes, and most representative brands are identified and attributes and consequences are laddered
-	Contextual environment. The usage context for a brand or product can be described either as physical occasions (place, time, people), or need state occasions (relaxing, rejuvenating, building relationships, feeling powerful, reducing stress, and getting organized). A brand or product is associated with a usage context
-	Preference, usage, similarity and dissimilarity differences. Comparing brands based on personal preference or usage is commonly used to distinguish between brands. Similarity and dissimilarity groupings also provide a direct method of distinguishing between brands. Questions of why Brand A was grouped differently or ranked higher than Brand B produce elicitations of attributes and consequences.
-	Timing of purchase or consumption. Timing issues are often related to product or brand choice and usage. For example, a respondent might be asked to identify products used for relief of a stuffy nose into several stages like onset, full-blown, and on-the-mend, or daytime and nighttime. Then the respondent would relate which brands were preferred for each time-related stage.
-	Usage trends. Dialogues about past and expected future usage of a brand help to elicit attributes and consequences that lead to different usage patterns. For example, respondents may be asked, “Will this brand be used more often, less often, or about the same as you have used it in the past?” Then, reasons for increased, decreased, or unchanged usage are discussed.
-	Product or brand substitution. Product and brand substitution methods elicit the degree of similarity of perceived attributes and consequences associated with usage. When questions are asked about the degree of substitutability, attributes and consequences are discovered that inhibit or promote substitution (attributes or consequences that need to be added or removed for substitution or trial to occur. The respondent can first sample or be given a brand descriptions, followed by questions like : how likely would you be to substitute (name of the new brand) for your current brand for this occasion why is that ?
-	Alternative usage occasions. Alternative uses are presented to determine if and why the brand is present or absent from the choice set. Questions might be phrased to ask: why would you consider using Brand A for this occasion, or what is keeping you from using Brand A for this occasion now? Both positive reasons why a brand fits a new occasion and negative reasons why it does not fit can be elicited and laddered. .

Adapted from by Reynolds, Dethloff, and Westberg, 2001, and Reynolds and Whitlark, 1995

One study using the Reynolds and Gutman (1988) approach to analyzing and quantifying the results of laddering exercises, attempted to understand the development of a new bank credit card.

Using the following types of probing questions, the study identified nine critical consumer attributes for a new card: no annual fee, status, low interest rate, added value features, acceptance, credit limit, ability to carry a balance, location of the sponsoring bank, and availability.

􀁸 Why do you prefer these cards?

􀁸 How do they benefit you?

􀁸 How are they different from others?

􀁸 What is your least favorite banking or credit card and why?

􀁸 What specific things did you dislike about this card?

􀁸 Have you had negative experiences that affect your current preferences?

􀁸 Under what conditions would you consult these rejected sources for a card?

􀁸 How does your preferred card affect your life?

􀁸 How does this card make you feel as a consumer?

􀁸 What does this preferred card do for you that the rejected cards don’t?

􀁸 During what period of your life are you most likely to need these services?

􀁸 During which period has it most benefited you? Why?

􀁸 Describe the best personal experience you have ever had concerning credit cards.

􀁸 How has that experience changed your life?

􀁸 Do you seek out similar experiences today?

􀁸 How would you describe a card that could help you achieve this?

These attributes were found to be linked to 12 benefits (consequences) that were perceived as part of card usage: not feeling cheated, independence, convenience, dependability, saving money, financial responsibility, freedom, establishing a credit history, power, security, supporting the community (local card), and confidence.

Finally the consequences were linked to four personal values: family concerns, improved self esteem, improved quality of life, and peace of mind. This analysis is actually mapped to show the hierarchy of attribute relationships.

Four distinct sub-hierarchies are shown that focus respectively on the four values. Means-end analysis provides a valuable platform upon which media can be developed. In this case, it is easy to imagine four separate commercials, each stressing a different set of attributes and consequences with overall personal value appeals to “Providing for the Family,” “Superior Quality of Life,” “Peace of Mind,” and “Heightened Self-Esteem.” Reflection upon the most effective credit card commercials shows that they are well targeted toward these very same appeals

The advantage of the benefit chain is that it is relatively easy to administer without a highly sophisticated interviewer. The only key decision is when to stop probing.

Other Techniques

Other variations of projective techniques have been used that are similar in nature but different in form from those already described. The repertory grid, for example, is a partially structured technique that requires the respondent to compare objects along dimensions that he or she selects. The usual procedure is to present the interviewee with a pack of cards on which brand names or other stimuli are printed. The respondent is asked to cull unfamiliar brands (stimuli) from the pack, and three cards with familiar brand names (stimuli) are selected at random. Following this, the respondent is asked to describe a way in which any two of the familiar brands (stimuli) are like each other and different from the third. The respondent is then asked to rate all the brands (stimuli) with respect to this dimension. The response may be in the form of a paired comparison, a ranking, or a numerical rating on a scale. This process is

repeated using three different brands (stimuli) until the dimensions of the respondent are exhausted. Additional respondents are interviewed until no new dimensions are given. On the average, 40 interviews are required to identify most of the relevant dimensions.

An example of the use of the repertory grid is a study done for a major producer of frozen foods who was interested in introducing a new type of toaster item that could be made to taste like a variety of freshly baked products. The research director was interested in the attributes of bakery items that consumers use to distinguish one product from another.

List of Food Item Stimuli Used in Repertory Grid Study

No	Stimulus
1.	Toast pop up
2.	Buttered toast (white)
3.	English muffin and margarine
4.	Jelly donut
5.	Cinnamon toast
6.	Blueberry muffin and margarine
7.	Hard rolls and butter
8.	Toast and marmalade
9.	Buttered toast and jelly
10.	Toast and margarine (white)
11.	Cinnamon bun
12.	Danish pastry
13.	Buttered toast (rye)
14.	Chocolate chip cookie
15.	Glazed donut
16.	Coffee cake
17.	Apple strudel
18.	Toasted pound cake
19.	Corn muffin and butter
20.	Bagel and cream cheese

Exhibit 6.4 

Discusses the use of protocols (Ericsson & Simon, 1984). This technique allows respondents to respond freely without intervention of an interviewer.

Protocols for the Qualitative Research Tool Kit

A protocol is a record of a respondent’s verbalized thought processes while performing a decision task or while problem solving. This record is obtained by asking the respondent to “think out loud” or talk about anything going through his or her head while performing the task. Protocols can be collected either in a laboratory situation while the respondent is making a simulated purchase or in the field while an actual purchase decision is being made.

Protocols can be recorded concurrent with the task or retrospective when the verbalizing aloud is done

just after the task has been finished.

In contrast to traditional survey methods, protocol methodology allows a person to respond freely in his

or her own terms in relation to the actual choice task or decision situation. The form and particular stimuli to which the research subject should respond is not defined or specified by the researcher.

Protocols can be useful in studying brand choice, product categorization, product usage patterns and attitudes, and the impact of shopping environment and situational variables on behavior.

Example : Comcast, a major provider of cable TV, telephone and Internet services offered an unsuccessful self install kit that often resulted in customers calling for a technician to complete the installation. A protocol analysis was conducted when individuals in a laboratory situation were give a self install kit and asked to complete an install while narrating their activities. Comcast identified the key problem areas in the install process and was able to revise installation instructions and provide an 800 support line, thereby making significant reduction in install service calls.

Story completion, an extension of the sentence completion technique, consists of presenting the beginning of a situational narrative to a respondent, who is asked to complete it. The general underlying principle is that the person will project his or her own psychological interpretation of the situation into the response. For example, the situation could be formulated as follows: “Last weekend my partner and I were deciding which jewelry store to visit for a purchase. When I mentioned XYZ, my partner remembered the last visit there. Now you complete the story.”

Observation

The remaining major method of collecting qualitative information is through observation. Observation is used to obtain information on both current and past behavior of people. Rather than asking respondents about their current behavior, it is often less costly and/or more accurate if the behavior is observed. We clearly cannot observe past behavior, but the results of such behavior are often observable through an approach known as the case study or customer case research. This exploratory qualitative methodology traces the stories of people, circumstances, decisions and events leading to actual purchase decisions through one-on-one interviews (Berstell & Nitterhouse, 2001). The case study approach allows for determining any underlying patterns and may uncover unforeseen problems and unexpected opportunities. Some key characteristics of this approach are (Berstell, 1992) :

-	Case studies uncover motivations through demonstrated actions, not through opinions.
-	Studies are conducted where a product is bought or used.
-	Observation and documentation are used to stimulate questions and corroborate responses.
-	Case studies can access multiple decision makers because they are done on site.
-	Case studies require researchers who are essentially “market detectives” rather than“census takers.” Such detectives must have the skills necessary to continue asking “why” questions until answers emerge that show and explain motivations.

Observation may be used as the sole means of collecting data or, as is frequently the case,it may be used in conjunction with other means. It is a method that should always be considered in designing marketing research investigations that call for information on past or current behavior. In some circumstances, observation is the only means of collecting the data desired. Respondents often cannot and sometimes will not report information accurately. Brands usage reports of well established brands generally show a “halo effect,” an upward bias reflecting the prestige the respondent associates with the use of the brand. Many companies, for example, have found that respondent reports of brand purchases of products vary widely from the actual brand of product that the consumer has on hand.

Other examples include a food retailer who tested a new type of shelving for canned goods by observing shoppers as they used the new shelves, and a toy manufacturer who, in a laboratory setting, observes children playing with product prototypes. In all these cases other research techniques could have been used, but observation was preferable.

There are some problems in using observation. One concern is with selective perception. Since human perception is quite selective, what people observe depends upon their backgrounds. Thus, what is observed, and reported as such by an observer, depends upon who is doing the observing. The second potential problem is that the behavior being observed is not representative. It may be that what has been observed is the “exception” rather than the rule. That is, the behavior observed may be a unique incident. Of particular concern is whether those being observed know they are being observed. If a person is being observed, his or her behavior may not be a “true” behavior. Also, the presence of others (e.g., in a crowded retail store) may influence behavior at the time. Thus, the situation and setting are critical to the observation experience.

The Audit

Audits of both distributor inventories and consumer purchases are widely conducted to understand purchase patterns. The distributor audit is the more widely known of the two. The commercially available Nielsen Retail Index, an audit of retail stores performed regularly, was described in Chapter 2. As indicated there, data from this and audits available through other research agencies provide estimates of market size, market share, geographic pattern of the market, seasonal purchasing patterns, and results of promotional and pricing changes.\

The pantry audit of consumer homes is the second type of audit that is sometimes performed. In this type of audit, the field worker takes an inventory of the brands, quantities, and package sizes that the consumer has on hand. When this type of audit is performed on a recurring basis, inconspicuous labels may be attached to the package showing the date the item was first included in the inventory. When the audit is combined with questioning of the consumer, an estimate of usage may be made. The pantry audit is relatively expensive in terms of data obtained, compared with a self-reporting consumer panel, however. Its use has declined as the use of consumer panels has increased.

Recording Devices

A number of electromechanical devices for “observing” the behavior of respondents are in use in marketing research. Some of these devices are used primarily in laboratory type investigations and others are used to record behavior in its natural setting. Types of recording instruments used in laboratory studies are the eye/pupilometric camera, and the psychogalvanometer. Three of the devices used in noncontrived situations are the video camera, and the Audimeter.

The “observing” of respondent behavior in a laboratory situation with the aid of recording devices has been largely confined to the pretesting of advertising. Eye/pupilometric cameras, for example, are specially designed cameras that record the pupil size changes and eye movements to specific materials on a page. Subjects are fitted with headgear and software is trained to the individual user. Subjects are then given an advertisement or other print/text media. The computer records and maps their line of eye travel, the ad sections that attract attention initially and sequentially, the relative amounts of time and points of focus in looking at images, and which portions of the copy are actually read, and so on.

Pupil size fluctuations are also recorded. The dilation and restriction of the pupil of the eye has been found to correlate with the degree of interest aroused by the visual stimulus. Interesting or arousing stimuli result in the dilation of the pupil. An advertisement or a product that is of interest to the subject will be evidenced by greater dilation of the pupil, indicating degree of interest.

The psycho galvanometer measures the extent of the subject “responds” to the advertisement. The principle involved is that the perspiration rate of the body is increased by the amount of stimulation provided by an advertisement. This relationship is measured as the change in electrical resistance in the palms of the subject’s hands.

Other devices are also used for “observing” behavior under laboratory conditions. In general, all such devices have the advantage of permitting careful and detailed observations of behavior that could not be made otherwise. They have the added advantage of providing permanent records of the behavior observed. In using these devices, however, one should always keep in mind two important questions :

1.	Is the behavior we are observing a valid predictor of the behavior we want to predict?
2.	Are the subjects behaving as they would in a natural situation?

The answer to the second question can clearly be in the affirmative if the observation is made outside the laboratory and in the natural situation, such as in ethnographic research. Hidden video cameras, for example, are used in many situations to record respondent behavior.

Direct Observation

Direct observation of people and how they behave in situations of interest is a commonly used method of collecting information. Many studies have been made of shopping behavior to determine the relative effects of such variables as displays, availability, and reliance on sales person advice on the brand selected and the quantity purchased. Supermarkets and department store managers continually rely on observation of traffic flows and length of waiting lines to determine the proper location of the various lines of products and the number and location of salespeople and cash registers. An important consideration in the location of banks, retail stores, and entire shopping centers is the amount and pattern of traffic at alternative sites.

Information obtained from direct observation of purchasers can be highly useful in helping to answer such questions as

-	Who actually buys the product?
-	Do they appear to be influenced by an accompanying person?
-	To what extent do brand choices appear to have been made earlier versus at the point of purchase?
-	What proportion of shoppers appears to check prices?
-	What proportion of shoppers studies the package before purchase?

Unobtrusive Measures

Observation is the method of data collection underlying a set of methods known as unobtrusive measures. By their very nature these are nonreactive measures. Included are all the types of data collection mentioned in this section.

One such application was a study performed for a manufacturer of frozen juice concentrates who was considering changing the design and amount of information given on the label. Before this change was made, information was needed on the extent to which consumers actually read information on labels. Hidden cameras were stationed in a sample of supermarkets in front of the frozen food cases, and pictures were taken of consumers selecting frozen juice concentrates. An analysis of these pictures indicated that far more time was spent in the selection and more careful attention given to the label than had previously been believed to be the case. It is not necessary for the camera to be hidden in order for it to be a useful device for recording behavior.

In addition, other types of unobtrusive measures are traces and archives. Regarding traces, studies of garbage can tell much about consumers. Garbage data can be used to examine many aspects of consumption behavior (Reilly, 1984) :

1. Brand and product type switching patterns

2. Market share estimation

3. Lifestyle patterns

4. Ethnic and social group differences

5. Media usage patterns

6. Free samples, deal packs, trial sizes, coupons

As an example, consider a “classic” study where alcoholic beverage purchases are tracked in a “dry” community. This unobtrusive research would show which types and brands are purchased and consumed by examining residents’ garbage. In this type of unobtrusive trace research, there are some biases that can arise. While the chose example and explanation focuses on “garbage research”, the biases and advantages outlined below apply more generally to all unobtrusive research. In general, biases may include the following :

Missing evidence. Compost piles, pets, garbage disposals, and recycling all affect estimates of product usage and waste and can lead to inaccurate estimates

Incomplete evidence. Discard of packaging material may not correspond to usage.

Despite these limitations, it appears they are minor relative to the advantages, particularly when the refuse analysis is part of an accepted project. Reilly (1984, 127–128) listed the following advantages of garbage analysis :

-	Unobtrusiveness. Under the current practices used (random sampling of household refuse within selected neighborhoods), individuals are not aware that their refuse is being analyzed.
-	Nonreactivity. Because they are not aware that their consumption is being monitored, consumers are unlikely to alter their behavior to appear more rational, more socially acceptable, or more economical.
-	Nonresponse. There is no selective bias in participation. Problems in estimating the effects of an imperfect sample are not evident.
-	Interviewer effects. Garbage is coded according to objective standards. There is limited possibility for the recorder to consciously or unconsciously bias the outcome of the analysis.
-	Response effects. As a result of the unobtrusiveness of the procedure, respondents are not capable of misrepresenting their behavior, either because they can’t remember accurately or because they wish to create some type of favorable impression.
-	Longitudinal analysis. The behavior of the same household can be observed over time. Patterns of brand/type/product switching can be accurately observed.
-	Satisfaction. Refuse provides an accurate measure of the waste of the product, which is a good indicator of the consumer’s liking for the product.
-	Completeness. Garbage provides information on products that are difficult to monitor through traditional means. Illegal behaviors, purchases from unscanned stores, outlier behaviors (such as beer consumption at parties), and socially sensitive aspects of behavior are all amenable to quantitative analysis using refuse evidence
-	Consumption. Garbage analysis includes accurate measures of when products were used, as opposed to measures of when the products were purchased. This makes measurement of stock-up effects and cross-consumption possible.

For a more detailed discussion of unobtrusive methods, we refer the reader to the writings of Webb, Campbell, Schwartz, and Sechrest (1966); Sechrest (1979); and Bouchard (1976). In many cases it is desirable to use these methods in conjunction with other more traditional ones. This is the process known as triangulation.

Direct Versus Indirect Research Techniques - An Assessment

Opinion has been divided among practitioners about the role and relative merits of indirect research techniques in marketing research. This division reflects in marketing research the objectivist-subjectivist debate in the behavioral sciences in general. The controversy has largely centered on three areas :

􀁸 The applicability of the techniques

􀁸 Sample selection and sizes employed

􀁸 Accuracy of utilizing disguised modes of obtaining such information

We will discuss each of these areas.

Applicability of Indirect Research Techniques

The basic premises leading to the use of indirect research techniques are as follows :

1.	The criteria employed and the evaluations made in most buying and use decisions have subconscious thoughts and emotions.
2.	This subconscious content is an important determinant of what we hear, feel, think, say and do when performing a choice behavior such as buying a product.
3.	Such content is not adequately or accurately verbalized by the respondent through direct communicative techniques.
4.	Such content is adequately and accurately verbalized by the respondent through indirect communicative techniques.

How valid are these premises? We have already seen that they are valid for some problems. While correct, this is not a very satisfactory answer. It is more useful to review situations in which indirect research information might reasonably be sought from respondents. Four situational categories can be distinguished in which information might be sought from respondents.

Category one is where the information desired is known to the respondent and he or she will give it if asked. Direct questioning will therefore provide all of the needed information in this situation. If the reason a consumer does not buy brand X tires is because he believes they do not wear as well as they should, he will willingly say so given the opportunity.

Category two is where the information desired is known to the respondent, but he or she does not want to divulge it. Matters that are considered to be private in nature, that are believed to be prestige- or status bearing, or that are perceived as presenting a potential respondent investigator opinion conflict may not be answered accurately. That otherwise quiet and retiring people sometimes buy powerful cars because it gives them a feeling of superiority on the highway are not reasons that will likely be expressed openly and candidly in response to direct questions. When underlying motivations of this general nature are believed to exist, indirect techniques are well suited to elicit such information.

Third, the information desired is obtainable from the respondent, but he or she is unable to verbalize it directly. When respondents have reasons they are unaware of, such as the association of the use of instant coffee with lack of planning and spendthrift purchasing, properly designed and administered indirect techniques can be highly useful for uncovering such motivations.

Fourth, the information desired is obtainable from the respondent only through inference from observation. In some cases motivations of respondents are so deep-seated that neither direct nor indirect methods of questioning will bring them to the surface.

An experiment in which the same detergent in three different-colored boxes resulted in the opinion of housewives using them that the detergent in the blue box left clothes dingy, that the one in the yellow box was too harsh, and that the one in the blue-and-yellow box was both gentle and effective in cleaning is an illustration of color association and its effect on assessment of product quality that very likely would not have been discovered through either direct or indirect questioning.

In another experiment, orange-scented nylons were placed on a counter in a department store next to identical, but unscented, hosiery. The scented hosiery was bought by approximately 90% of the women making purchases. Questioning of the women who bought the scented hose as to why they preferred the hose they bought resulted in answers such as “of better quality,” “sheerer,” and the like.

Of these four informational categories, only the second and third lend themselves to the use of indirect research techniques. It remains, of course, for the analyst to decide in which one or more of these categories the information he or she requires will fall.

While neither the universally applicable methodology nor the panacea that some proponents have claimed, indirect research techniques can provide information on some types of marketing problems that is not now obtainable by other means.

Sample Selection and Sizes in Qualitative Research

The subject of sampling is considered in detail in the next chapter. However, it is desirable to examine here the typical sampling procedures and practices that have been used in qualitative research studies, as this has been an area of considerable controversy

Sample selection in qualitative research studies has tended to be done on nonprobabilistic (purposive) bases rather than by probabilistic methods. Typically, selection has been on a judgment or quota basis. Serious sampling errors can result from purposive sampling and the extent of the sampling error is unknown. There are times, however, when the sample is not statistically representative of the target market, but is close enough to be used as a basis for judgment.

A second area of controversy over the samples typically taken in qualitative research studies relates to their size. Generally, samples have been small, often ranging from 20 to 50 in size. The use of a small sample in a qualitative research study suggests that the population of psychological attributes and motivations being sampled is sufficiently homogeneous that only a limited sample is required to provide an adequate representation of the population. However, the bulk of the evidence amassed by psychologists suggests that motivations are myriad and varied in their effect on behavior. To assume that the motivations of a very small group of people adequately represent those of the population at large is to ignore the high degree of variability that empirical studies have substantiated.

The Validity of the Findings

What about the validity of indirect research findings? How has their performance in these respects compared with that of the more conventional research methods? The question of validity of findings is, of course, the heart of the issue here, as it is in the general objectivist-subjectivist controversy. Unfortunately, to raise the question is to beg it; no definitive answer can be given. As has already been indicated, the answer is necessarily conditional on the nature of the problem being investigated.

An observation does need to be made, however, about the differences in judging validity by the “clients” of basic research versus those of decisional research projects. The client of the basic research project is the professional in the field. Judgments of a study’s validity are a highly impersonal process and one that is seldom urgent. When the purpose of the project is either to make the best estimate of a population parameter or to conduct the best test of a hypothesis within the constraints of available resources, the rules of evidence for a basic research study require that the procedures be public, the results investigator-independent, and the project replicable.

Since indirect research methods violate each of these requirements to some extent, there has been reluctance on the part of some basic researchers to give even tentative acceptance to unvalidated findings of studies that employ indirect methods. They tend to look upon indirect research methods as a means of generating hypotheses for testing by objectivist methods rather than as a source of valid findings. In the absence of data that can be used for direct validation, the basic research project is judged tentatively on the basis of method.

The client for a decisional research project has a different set of requirements. Rather than wanting to be assured that the best estimate of a parameter or the most definitive test of a hypothesis has been made, the client needs information that will assist him or her in making the best decision possible in the circumstances. The procedures of the investigation need not be public, and there is seldom a need for replication. The client works directly with the researcher and is able to raise any questions he or she has about the project. The client usually will have had the opportunity to judge the validity of the findings of past research projects conducted by either the researcher or the organization for which he or she works. An assessment of validity of the findings must be made now; for a decision to await the outcome to determine if the findings are valid would obviate the very purpose for which the research was conducted. Judgment of degree of validity therefore turns out to be a much more subjective process in decisional than in basic research.

Indirect techniques serve several useful purposes in marketing research. They can be used to obtain information from respondents unwilling or unable to provide it by direct methods, to check the validity of responses to direct techniques, and to provide supplemental information. Included in the supplemental information that is of value is that which suggests hypotheses that can be tested by direct methods.

Summary

In this chapter we first examined the various types of indirect interviews and qualitative research techniques that can be used to obtain information from respondents. In the indirect types of interviews, we described the more commonly used projective techniques, including the third person technique (“what does your neighbor think of ___?”), word association, sentence completion and depth interviews. Also discussed were focus groups and in-depth interviews, including ZMET and means ends laddering interviews.

We then considered the means of obtaining information through observation of people. The use of audits, recording devices, and direct observation were described and their applications discussed. Of particular interest is the use of trace analysis (analysis of post-consumption garbage) to study behavior.

Finally, an assessment was made of direct (discussed in Chapters 4) versus indirect research techniques from the standpoints of applicability to marketing problems, sample selection and sizes, and validity of findings.

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